| Acknowledgements | 8 |
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| Abbreviations | 18 |
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| 1 The Directionality of the Transmission of the Jesus and Gospel Traditions: A History of Research | 20 |
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| 1.1 Herman Gunkel | 21 |
| 1.2 Sitz im Leben Unidirectionality from Judaeo-Palestinian into Hellenistic Tradition | 25 |
| 1.2.1 Martin Dibelius | 25 |
| 1.2.2 Rudolf Bultmann | 31 |
| 1.2.3 Gerd Theissen | 35 |
| 1.3 Modal Unidirectionality from Oral into Written Tradition | 39 |
| 1.3.1 Scandinavian School | 41 |
| 1.3.1.1 Harald Riesenfeld | 41 |
| 1.3.1.2 Birger Gerhardsson | 42 |
| 1.3.2 Orality Theory | 44 |
| 1.3.2.1 Werner Kelber | 46 |
| 1.3.2.2 Joanna Dewey | 50 |
| 1.3.3 The Earliest Written Tradition: Earle Ellis | 52 |
| 1.4 Linguistic Unidirectionality from Aramaic into Greek Tradition | 55 |
| 1.4.1 Aramaic Language as a Criterion | 57 |
| 1.4.1.1 Charles C. Torrey | 58 |
| 1.4.1.2 Matthew Black | 62 |
| 1.4.1.3 Joachim Jeremias | 64 |
| 1.4.1.4 Joseph Fitzmyer | 66 |
| 1.4.2 Greek Language as a Criterion | 69 |
| 1.4.2.1 Alexander Roberts | 70 |
| 1.4.2.2 Aubrey Argyle | 72 |
| 1.4.2.3 Nigel Turner | 73 |
| 1.4.2.4 Robert Gundry | 73 |
| 1.4.2.5 Stanley Porter | 74 |
| 1.5 Interdirectionality Hypothesis | 77 |
| 1.5.1 Sitz im Leben Interdirectionality: Martin Hengel | 77 |
| 1.5.2 Modal Interdirectionality | 80 |
| 1.5.2.1 Form Criticism: Helmut Koester | 80 |
| 1.5.2.2 Textual Criticism: David Parker | 82 |
| 1.5.2.3 Scandinavian School: Samuel Byrskog | 83 |
| 1.5.2.4 Liturgical Use and Canon Formation: Harry Gamble | 85 |
| 1.5.2.5 Notebook Theory: Graham Stanton and Richard Bauckham | 86 |
| 1.5.3 Linguistic Interdirectionality: E. P. Sanders | 89 |
| 1.5.4 Interdirectionality Hypotheses and Gospel Studies | 91 |
| Part I: Bilingualism of First-Century Palestine and the Roman Near East | 94 |
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| 2 Bilingualism and Diglossia | 96 |
| 2.1 Definitions | 98 |
| 2.1.1 Bilingualism | 98 |
| 2.1.2 Bilingual Community | 100 |
| 2.1.3 Bilingualism and Multilingualism | 100 |
| 2.1.4 Early Bilingualism vs. Late Bilingualism | 100 |
| 2.1.5 Primary Bilingualism vs. Acquired Bilingualism | 101 |
| 2.1.6 Oral Bilingualism vs. Literate Bilingualism | 102 |
| 2.1.7 Stages of Bilingualism | 103 |
| 2.1.8 Balanced Bilingualism vs. Dominant Bilingualism | 103 |
| 2.1.9 Matrix Language vs. Embedded Language | 103 |
| 2.1.10 Substratum, Adstratum and Superstratum | 104 |
| 2.1.11 Ancestor, Daughter and Sister Language | 104 |
| 2.2 Diglossia in First Century Palestine? | 105 |
| 2.2.1 Charles Ferguson | 106 |
| 2.2.2 Joshua Fishman | 107 |
| 2.2.3 Pinchas Lapide | 107 |
| 2.2.4 Chaim Rabin | 109 |
| 2.2.5 Bernard Spolsky | 111 |
| 2.2.6 Jonathan Watt | 113 |
| 2.3 Bilingualism and Diglossia Models | 115 |
| 2.3.1 Characteristics of the Four Languages in First-Century Palestine | 115 |
| 2.3.2 Language Preference Theory | 116 |
| 2.3.3 Maximalism and Minimalism | 118 |
| 2.3.4 Biliteracy of First-Century Palestine | 122 |
| 3 Bilingualism of Jews in First-Century Palestine | 124 |
| 3.1 Regional Bilingualism | 124 |
| 3.1.1 Inscriptional Evidence | 125 |
| 3.1.2 Papyrological Evidence | 127 |
| 3.1.3 Population Geographical Evidence | 129 |
| 3.2 Personal Bilingualism | 131 |
| 3.2.1 Military Invasion and Colonization | 132 |
| 3.2.2 Migration or Inflow | 133 |
| 3.2.3 Ethnic Awareness | 133 |
| 3.2.4 Bilingual Parents or Region | 134 |
| 3.2.5 Formal Education | 139 |
| 3.2.6 Occupation | 149 |
| 3.3 Bilingualism of First-Century Palestine and Interdirectionality | 152 |
| 4 Bilingualism of Jews in the First-Century Diaspora | 154 |
| 4.1 Grounds for Bilingualism in the Jewish Diaspora | 156 |
| 4.1.1 Bilingualism of the Roman Empire | 157 |
| 4.1.2 Successive Immigration | 160 |
| 4.1.3 Periodic Connection with Jerusalem | 164 |
| 4.1.4 Learning Aramaic in Jerusalem | 166 |
| 4.2 Alexandria | 169 |
| 4.2.1 Bilingualism of Ptolemaic and Early Roman Alexandria | 170 |
| 4.2.2 Archaeological Evidence | 175 |
| 4.2.3 Successive Immigration | 179 |
| 4.2.4 Periodic Connection with Jerusalem | 180 |
| 4.3 Antioch | 181 |
| 4.3.1 Bilingualism of Roman Antioch | 182 |
| 4.3.2 Bilingualism of the Antiochene Jews | 186 |
| 4.3.3 Bilingualism of the Antiochene Christians | 189 |
| 4.4 Bilingualism of the Jewish Diaspora and Interdirectionality | 191 |
| 5 The Bilingualism of the Earliest Christian Church in Jerusalem | 194 |
| 5.1 The State of Affairs | 195 |
| 5.2 Bilingualism of the Hebrews and Hellenists | 201 |
| 5.2.1 Hebrews: Aramaic-Matrix Christians | 203 |
| 5.2.2 Hellenists: Greek-Matrix Christians | 208 |
| 5.3 The Bilingual Seven | 216 |
| 5.3.1 Onomastica | 216 |
| 5.3.2 Geographical Evidence | 217 |
| 5.3.2.1 Caesarea Maritima | 218 |
| 5.3.2.2 Samaria | 219 |
| 5.3.2.3 Ethiopia | 220 |
| 5.3.2.4 Antioch | 222 |
| 5.3.3 Performance of Their Duty | 223 |
