| Aims and Scope | 6 |
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| Contents | 7 |
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| List of Abbreviations | 9 |
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| General Information for Authors | 12 |
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| Part I Articles:Necessity Across International Law | 14 |
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| 1 Necessity Across International Law: An Introduction | 15 |
| Abstract | 15 |
| References | 22 |
| 2 Necessity and the Use of Force: A Special Regime | 23 |
| Abstract | 23 |
| 2.1…Introduction | 24 |
| 2.2…Historical Overview | 25 |
| 2.3…Institutional Necessity and the Use of Force | 28 |
| 2.3.1 Threat to the Peace/Breach of the Peace/Act of Aggression (Article 39, UN Charter) | 28 |
| 2.3.2 Institutional Uses of Force (Article 42, UN Charter) | 29 |
| 2.3.3 Self-Defence (Article 51, UN Charter) | 30 |
| 2.4…Customary-Cum-Institutional Uses of Force | 31 |
| 2.4.1 Pre-Emptive Self-Defence | 31 |
| 2.4.2 Preventive Self-Defence | 32 |
| 2.4.3 Protection of Nationals Abroad | 34 |
| 2.4.4 Use of Force for Humanitarian Purposes | 35 |
| 2.5…Customary Uses of Force | 37 |
| 2.5.1 Forcible Reprisals | 37 |
| 2.6…Use of Force: A Special Regime | 39 |
| 2.6.1 Characteristics of the Use of Force Regime | 39 |
| 2.6.2 Use of Force Regime and the Law of State Responsibility | 41 |
| 2.6.3 Necessity as a Circumstance Precluding Wrongfulness | 51 |
| 2.7…Conclusion | 54 |
| References | 54 |
| 3 Necessity in the Law of Armed Conflict and in International Criminal Law | 57 |
| Abstract | 57 |
| 3.1…Introductory Remarks | 58 |
| 3.2…Necessity and the Law of International Armed Conflict | 60 |
| 3.2.1 Military Necessity as a General Principle of Restraint | 60 |
| 3.2.2 Military Necessity as a Permissive Condition | 63 |
| 3.2.3 Military Necessity Versus the Protection of Cultural Property | 66 |
| 3.2.4 Military Necessity Versus the Protection of the Environment | 68 |
| 3.3…The Role of International Jurisprudence | 71 |
| 3.3.1 State Responsibility | 71 |
| 3.3.2 Individual Criminal Responsibility | 77 |
| 3.3.3 Necessity and Duress as Criminal Defences | 81 |
| 3.4…Military Necessity in Non-International Armed Conflict | 84 |
| 3.5…Concluding Remarks | 85 |
| Acknowledgements | 86 |
| References | 87 |
| 4 State Responsibility, Necessity and Human Rights | 91 |
| Abstract | 91 |
| 4.1…Introduction | 92 |
| 4.2…Invoking Necessity so as to Excuse Non-Compliance with International Human Rights Law: Human Rights as Essential Interests of the International Community Under Article 25 ILC Articles | 94 |
| 4.3…The Role of ‘Necessity’ with Respect to Primary Obligations Contained in International Human Rights Treaties | 98 |
| 4.4…Human Rights as an ‘Essential Interest’ Excusing Non-Compliance with Non-Human Rights Related International Law Obligations | 103 |
| 4.5…Concluding Observations | 107 |
| References | 109 |
| 5 A Necessity Paradigm of ‘Necessity’ in International Economic Law | 111 |
| Abstract | 111 |
| 5.1…Introduction | 112 |
| 5.2…States of Necessity in International Economic Relations: Theory | 113 |
| 5.3…International Practice | 119 |
| 5.3.1 Necessity in the Framework of the World Trade Organization | 119 |
| 5.3.2 ‘Necessity’ in the Framework of International Development Law | 126 |
| 5.3.2.1 Necessity in International Development Law | 126 |
| 5.3.2.2 Necessity in International Investment Law | 129 |
| 5.3.3 ‘Necessity’ in the Framework of the International Monetary Fund | 135 |
| 5.4…International Mechanisms Focusing on Global and National Economic Crisis Identification and Management | 140 |
| 5.5…Conclusion | 146 |
| Acknowledgements | 147 |
| References | 147 |
| 6 Necessity in Investment Arbitration | 149 |
| Abstract | 149 |
| 6.1…Introduction | 150 |
| 6.2…Economic Emergency as a Non-Legal Question, Outside the Scope of ICSID Jurisdiction | 152 |
| 6.3…State of Necessity as an Issue of General International Law | 156 |
| 6.3.1 State of Necessity and Economic Emergencies | 157 |
| 6.3.2 Extreme Cases Only | 158 |
| 6.3.3 Conflicting Interpretations of State of Necessity | 159 |
| 6.4…Economic Emergencies Under Derogation Clauses Contained in Investment Agreements and as Potential Ground for Precluding Wrongfulness Under General International Law | 160 |
| 6.5…Is the Existing Law Adequate or is it too Strict? | 164 |
| 6.5.1 The Article 25 ‘Only Way’ Requirement | 165 |
| 6.6…The Issue of Contribution | 166 |
| 6.7…Conclusions | 167 |
| References | 169 |
| 7 Necessity in International Environmental Law | 171 |
| Abstract | 171 |
| 7.1…Introduction | 172 |
| 7.2…A Brief Introduction to Article 25 of the Articles on State Responsibility | 173 |
| 7.3…Necessity in International Environmental Law: Introductory Remarks | 175 |
| 7.3.1 The Relevant Practice of States and the Case Law | 175 |
| 7.3.1.1 The 1893 Fur Seals Controversy and the 1893 Bering Fur Seals Fisheries Arbitration (Great Britain v. the United States) | 176 |
| Brief Conclusion | 178 |
| 7.3.1.2 The Torrey Canyon Incident | 179 |
| Brief Conclusion | 180 |
| 7.3.1.3 The 1998 Fisheries Jurisdiction Case (Spain v. Canada) (Jurisdiction) | 181 |
| Brief Concl
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