| Foreword | 6 |
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| Preface | 8 |
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| Contents | 13 |
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| Contributors | 15 |
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| Part I Cardiac and Pulmonary Imaging, Image Processing, and Three-Dimensional Reconstruction in Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Systems | 19 |
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| 1 Image Acquisition for Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Applications | 20 |
| 1.1 Introduction to Imaging | 20 |
| 1.1.1 Invasive Techniques | 22 |
| 1.1.2 Role of Noninvasive Imaging | 22 |
| 1.2 Ultrasound/Echocardiography | 23 |
| 1.2.1 Principles of Ultrasound | 23 |
| 1.2.1.1 M-Mode | 25 |
| 1.2.1.2 2D Ultrasound | 26 |
| 1.2.2 Echocardiography | 27 |
| 1.2.2.1 Morphologic Imaging | 27 |
| 1.2.2.2 Function | 28 |
| 1.2.2.3 Flow (Doppler) | 28 |
| 1.2.2.4 TTE Versus TEE | 29 |
| 1.2.3 Vascular/Peripheral | 30 |
| 1.3 Computed Tomography (CT) | 31 |
| 1.3.1 Principles of CT | 31 |
| 1.3.1.1 Basic CT | 32 |
| 1.3.1.2 Multidetector CT | 33 |
| 1.3.2 Cardiac CT | 34 |
| 1.3.2.1 Coronary Arteries | 34 |
| 1.3.2.2 Aorta | 35 |
| 1.3.2.3 Cardiac Function | 35 |
| 1.3.3 Pulmonary CT | 36 |
| 1.3.3.1 Parenchyma | 36 |
| 1.3.3.2 Pulmonary Angiography | 37 |
| 1.4 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | 37 |
| 1.4.1 Principles of MRI | 37 |
| 1.4.1.1 Signal Generation | 38 |
| 1.4.1.2 General Techniques and Contrast Mechanisms | 38 |
| 1.4.1.3 Morphology | 39 |
| 1.4.1.4 Function | 40 |
| 1.4.1.5 Perfusion/Ischemia | 42 |
| 1.4.2 MR Angiography | 43 |
| 1.4.3 Pulmonary MRI: Emerging Techniques | 45 |
| 1.5 Other Techniques | 47 |
| 1.5.1 SPECT | 47 |
| 1.5.2 PET | 48 |
| 1.6 Summary | 49 |
| References | 49 |
| 2 Three-dimensional and Four-dimensional Cardiopulmonary Image Analysis | 51 |
| 2.1 Introduction | 51 |
| 2.2 Segmentation and Modeling Methodology | 52 |
| 2.2.1 Active Shape and Appearance Models | 52 |
| 2.2.1.1 Building a 3D Statistical Shape Model | 53 |
| 2.2.1.2 Extension to Higher Dimensions | 54 |
| 2.2.1.3 Combining Shape and Appearance | 54 |
| 2.2.1.4 Robust ASM and AAM Implementations | 55 |
| 2.2.2 Region Growing and Fuzzy Connectivity Segmentation | 56 |
| 2.2.2.1 Region Growing | 56 |
| 2.2.2.2 Fuzzy Connectivity-Based Segmentation | 57 |
| 2.2.3 Graph-Based Segmentation | 58 |
| 2.2.3.1 Approaches Based on Rectangular Graph Structures | 58 |
| 2.2.3.2 Minimum-Cut Approaches | 61 |
| 2.2.3.3 Cost Functions | 62 |
| 2.3 Cardiac Applications | 63 |
| 2.3.1 Modeling and Quantitative Analysis of the Ventricles | 64 |
| 2.3.1.1 Manual Ventricle Segmentation | 64 |
| 2.3.1.2 3D Shape Generation | 66 |
| 2.3.2 Tetralogy of Fallot Classification | 68 |
| 2.3.2.1 Study Population and Experimental Methods | 69 |
| 2.3.2.2 Novel Ventricular Function Indices | 70 |
| 2.4 Vascular Applications | 71 |
| 2.4.1 Connective Tissue Disorder in the Aorta | 71 |
| 2.4.1.1 4D Segmentation of Aortic MR Image Data | 72 |
| 2.4.1.2 Disease Detection | 74 |
| 2.4.1.3 Accuracy of Segmentation and Classification | 75 |
| 2.4.2 Aortic Thrombus and Aneurysm Analysis | 76 |
| 2.4.2.1 Initial Luminal Surface Segmentation | 78 |
| 2.4.2.2 Graph Search and Cost Function Design | 79 |
| 2.4.2.3 Data and Results | 80 |
| 2.4.3 Plaque Distribution in Coronary Arteries | 83 |
| 2.4.3.1 Segmentation and 3D Fusion | 84 |
| 2.4.3.2 Hemodynamic and Morphologic Analysis | 88 |
| 2.4.3.3 Studies and Results | 89 |
| 2.5 Pulmonary Applications | 91 |
| 2.5.1 Segmentation and Quantitative Analysis of Airway Trees | 92 |
| 2.5.1.1 Airway Tree Segmentation | 93 |
| 2.5.1.2 Quantitative Analysis of Airway Tree Morphology | 95 |
| 2.5.2 Quantitative Analysis of Pulmonary Vascular Trees | 98 |
| 2.5.3 Segmentation of Lung Lobes | 104 |
| 2.6 Discussions and Conclusions | 107 |
| References | 108 |
| Part II Computational Techniques for Fluid and Soft Tissue Mechanics, FluidStructure Interaction, and Development of Multi-scale Simulations | 119 |
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| 3 Computational Techniques for Biological Fluids: From Blood Vessel Scale to Blood Cells | 120 |
| 3.1 Introduction | 120 |
| 3.2 Computational Methods for Macro-scale Hemodynamics | 121 |
| 3.2.1 Governing Equations | 121 |
| 3.2.1.1 The Fluid Flow Equations | 121 |
| 3.2.1.2 The Structural Equations | 123 |
| 3.2.1.3 Boundary Conditions at the Fluid--Structure Interface | 126 |
| 3.2.2 Numerical Methods for Flows with Moving Boundaries | 126 |
| 3.2.2.1 Boundary-Conforming Methods | 127 |
| 3.2.2.2 Non-boundary-Conforming Methods | 129 |
| 3.2.2.3 Hybrid Methods: Body-Fitted/Immersed Boundary Methods | 133 |
| 3.2.3 Fluid--Structure Interaction Algorithms | 133 |
| 3.2.3.1 Loose and Strong Coupling Strategies | 134 |
| 3.2.3.2 Stability and Robustness Issues | 135 |
| 3.2.4 Efficient Solvers for Physiologic Pulsatile Simulations | 136 |
| 3.2.5 High-Resolution Simulations of Cardiovascular Flow | 137 |
| 3.2.5.1 Fluid--Structure Interaction Simulations of Mechanical Bileaflet Heart Valves | 137 |
| 3.2.5.2 Numerical Simulations of Trileaflet Heart Valve Hemodynamics | 139 |
| 3.3 Computational Methods for Blood Cell Scale Simulations | 142 |
| 3.3.1 Background | 142 |
| 3.3.2 Review of Numerical Methods for Blood Cell-Resolving Simulations | 142 |
| 3.3.2.1 Boundary-Integral Methods for Cell-Level Simulation | 143 |
| 3.3.2.2 Immersed Boundary Method | 144 |
| 3.3.2.3 Particle Methods | 144 |
| 3.3.2.4 Lattice Boltzmann | 145 |
| 3.3.3 Lattice-Boltzmann Methodology | 145 |
| 3.3.3.1 Lattice-Boltzmann BGK (LBGK) Model for Fluid Flow | 145 |
| 3.3.3.2 Transient Finite-Element FSI Model | 146 |
| 3.3.4 Membrane Models | 151 |
| 3.3.4.1 Comparison of Red Blood Cell Models | 154 |
| 3.3.5 Rheology, Stress, and Microstructure of Blood | 154 |
| 3.3.5.1 Bulk Rheology | 155 |
| 3.3.5.2 Shear-Thinning Behavior | 156 |
| 3.3.5.3 Microstructure | 158 |
| 3.3.5.4 Local Stress Environment in Blood | 161 |
| 3.4 Future Directions | 162 |
| References | 163 |
| 4 Formulation and Computational Implementation of Constitutive Models for Cardiovascular Soft Tissue Simulations | 171 |
| 4.1 Introduction | 171 |
| 4.2 Constitutive Models for Cardiovascular Soft Tissues | 173 |
| 4.2.1 Condition Number of D | 176 |
| 4.3 Structural Constitutive Models |
