| Preface | 7 |
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| Prologue | 9 |
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| Prologue | 10 |
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| Contents | 11 |
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| Part I The Pancreas | 15 |
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| 1 Overview of the Pancreas | 16 |
| 1.1 Structure of the Pancreas | 16 |
| 1.2 Development of the Pancreas | 19 |
| 1.3 Molecular Hierarchy of the Pancreatic Development | 21 |
| References | 24 |
| 2 Physiology of the Pancreas | 26 |
| 2.1 ExocrineEndocrine Axis | 26 |
| 2.2 Pancreatic Acinar Cells | 28 |
| 2.3 Pancreatic Duct Cells | 30 |
| 2.4 Pancreatic Islet Cells | 33 |
| 2.4.1 Beta-Cells | 34 |
| 2.4.2 Alpha-Cells | 36 |
| 2.4.3 Delta-Cells and PP-Cells | 36 |
| References | 38 |
| 3 Common Pancreatic Disease | 41 |
| 3.1 Pancreatitis | 41 |
| 3.1.1 Etiology and Prognosis | 41 |
| 3.1.2 Treatments | 44 |
| 3.2 Cystic Fibrosis | 45 |
| 3.2.1 Etiology and Prognosis | 46 |
| 3.2.2 Treatments | 47 |
| 3.3 Pancreatic Cancer | 48 |
| 3.3.1 Etiology and Prognosis | 48 |
| 3.3.2 Treatments | 49 |
| 3.3.3 Alternative Approach Using Traditional Chinese Medicine | 50 |
| 3.4 Diabetes Mellitus | 55 |
| 3.4.1 Etiology and Prognosis | 55 |
| 3.4.2 Treatments | 58 |
| References | 60 |
| Part II The Renin-Angiotensin System (RAS) | 64 |
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| 4 Circulating RAS | 65 |
| 4.1 Definition of Circulating RAS | 65 |
| 4.2 Angiotensinogen | 68 |
| 4.3 Angiotensin-Generating Enzymes | 69 |
| 4.4 Angiotensin and (Pro)renin Receptors | 71 |
| References | 75 |
| 5 Local RAS | 79 |
| 5.1 Definition of the Local RAS | 79 |
| 5.2 Local RAS in Carotid Body | 80 |
| 5.2.1 Expression and Function of Carotid Body RAS | 81 |
| 5.2.2 Carotid Body RAS and Congestive Heart Failure | 82 |
| 5.3 Local RAS in Liver | 83 |
| 5.3.1 RAS and Liver Function | 84 |
| 5.3.2 Interaction Between Hepatic RAS and Vitamin D in T2DM | 85 |
| 5.4 Local RAS in Intestine | 87 |
| 5.4.1 Expression and Function of an Enterocyte RAS | 89 |
| 5.4.2 Enterocyte RAS and Diabetes Mellitus | 91 |
| 5.4.3 ACE2-Angiotensin (1--7)-Mas Receptor Axis and Intestinal Glucose Uptake | 92 |
| References | 94 |
| 6 Pancreatic RAS | 98 |
| 6.1 Acinar Cell RAS | 99 |
| 6.2 Ductal Cell RAS | 102 |
| 6.3 Stellate Cell RAS | 105 |
| 6.4 Islet Cell RAS | 106 |
| References | 111 |
| Part III Research Progress of the RAS in Pancreas | 115 |
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| 7 Basic Techniques for Pancreatic Research | 116 |
| 7.1 Cell Models | 116 |
| 7.2 Animal Models | 118 |
| 7.2.1 Animal Models of T1DM | 119 |
| 7.2.2 Animal Models of T2DM | 119 |
| 7.2.3 Animal Models of Pancreatitis | 121 |
| 7.2.4 Animal Models of Pancreatic Cancer | 122 |
| 7.3 Islet and Acinar Cell Isolation | 122 |
| 7.4 Islet Transplantation | 124 |
| 7.4.1 Animal Models of Islet Transplantation | 124 |
| 7.4.2 Recent Advances in Islet Transplantation | 125 |
| 7.5 Expression and Functional Studies | 127 |
| 7.5.1 Gene expression studies | 128 |
| 7.5.2 Protein Expression Studies | 128 |
| 7.5.3 Transfection | 129 |
| 7.5.4 Functional Studies | 131 |
| References | 132 |
| 8 Current Research of the RAS in Diabetes Mellitus | 138 |
| 8.1 Basic Studies of the RAS in T2DM | 139 |
| 8.1.1 RAS Blockade Studies in Animal Models of T2DM | 139 |
| 8.1.2 RAS Blockade-Induced Protective Mechanism | 141 |
| 8.2 Clinical Studies of the RAS in T2DM | 142 |
| 8.2.1 Recent Clinical Trials on RAS Blockers | 142 |
| 8.2.2 DREAM Trial and Its Implications | 143 |
| 8.3 Current Research on the RAS-Vitamin D-T2DM Axis | 144 |
| 8.3.1 Vitamin D and RAS in T2DM | 144 |
| 8.3.2 Role of Vitamin D in Modulating Islet RAS Expression and Function | 146 |
| 8.3.3 Expression of Islet RAS in VDR Knockout Mice | 148 |
| 8.4 Current Research on the RAS-GLP1-T2DM Axis | 151 |
| 8.4.1 Role of DPP-IV Inhibition in T2DM | 152 |
| 8.4.2 Interaction of Islet RAS and GLP-1 | 152 |
| 8.4.3 Potential Role of Vitamin D in Modulating Islet RAS and GLP-1 | 153 |
| References | 155 |
| 9 Current Research Concerning the RAS in PancreaticStem Cells | 161 |
| 9.1 Source of Pancreatic Stem Cells | 161 |
| 9.2 Current Research on Pancreatic Stem Cells | 164 |
| 9.3 Current Research of the RAS on Stem Cells | 167 |
| 9.3.1 The RAS and ESCs | 168 |
| 9.3.2 The RAS and MSCs | 168 |
| 9.3.3 The Vascular RAS and Erythropoiesis | 170 |
| 9.3.4 The RAS and Fetal Tissues | 170 |
| 9.4 Current Research on the RAS in Pancreatic Stem Cells | 171 |
| 9.4.1 Limitations and Future Directions | 177 |
| References | 178 |
| 10 Current Research of the RAS in Pancreatitis and PancreaticCancer | 184 |
| 10.1 Basic Studies of the RAS in Pancreatitis | 184 |
| 10.1.1 Evidence of a Local RAS and Its Roles in Pancreatitis | 185 |
| 10.1.2 Potential Mechanisms of RAS-Mediated Oxidative Stress and Blood Flow in Pancreatitis | 185 |
| 10.1.3 The RAS and Cytokine-Mediated Systemic Inflammation in Pancreatitis | 186 |
| 10.2 Current Research of the RAS on Pancreatitis In Vivo | 187 |
| 10.2.1 Effects of RAS Blockade in Rat Model of Caerulein-Induced AP | 187 |
| 10.2.2 Effects of RAS Blockade in Rat Model of Obstructive AP | 189 |
| 10.3 Current Research of the RAS on Pancreatitis In Vitro | 192 |
| 10.3.1 Effects of Angiotensin II on ERK and CREB-Mediated IL6 Expression | 193 |
| 10.3.2 Potential Crosstalk Between Angiotensin II-Induced ROS-Mediated ERK and NF B | 193 |
| 10.4 Current Research of the RAS in Pancreatic Cancer | 196 |
| 10.4.1 Expression and Regulation of the RAS Components in Tumours | 197 |
| 10.4.2 RAS Blockade and Pancreatic Cancers | 198 |
| References | 199 |
| Epilogue | 205 |
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| Epilogue | 206 |
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| Index | 207 |
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